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06.02.2023 10:58

Английский язык

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Complete each sentence using a word or a phrase from the text (the first letter of the word is given). 1. Principle is a rule or law concerning a n… p… or the behaviour of a system.
2. P… laws give directions, rules, or injunctions, while d… laws are based upon description or classification rather than explanation or prescription.
3. Prescriptive laws comprise c… — usual or habitual practices, typical mode of behaviour.
4. Laws of a country are enforced against all its c… .
5. P… l… is the branch of law that deals with relations between a state and its individual members.
6. Laws provide a f… for interaction among citizens.
7. J… is the principle of fairness that like cases should be treated alike.
8. One of the factors in determining the actions of government is p… o… .
9. The Democrats have a slim m… in the House, so they have more chances to influence adoption of the statute.

The English word law refers to limits upon various forms of
behaviour. Some laws are descriptive: they simply describe how
people, or even natural phenomena, usually behave. An example is rather consistent law of gravity; another is the less consistent law of economics. Other laws are prescriptive — they
prescribe how people ought to behave. For example, the speed
limits imposed upon drivers are laws that prescribe how fast we
should drive. They rarely describe how fast we actually do drive,
of course.In all societies, relations between people are regulated by
prescriptive laws. Some of them are customs — that is, informal
rules of social and moral behaviour. Some are rules we accept if we
belong to particular social institutions, such as religious, educational and cultural groups. And some are precise laws made by
nations and enforced against all citizens within their power.
What motives do governments have in making and enforcing
laws? Social control is undoubtedly one purpose. Public laws
establish the authority of the government itself, and civil laws
provide a framework for interaction among citizens. With out
laws, it is argued, there would be anarchy in society (although
anarchists themselves argue that human beings would be able
to interact peacefully without laws if there were no governments to interfere in our lives).
Another purpose is the implementation of justice. Justice is
a concept that most people feel is very important but few are able
to define. Sometimes a just decision is simply a decision that
most people feel is fair. But can we create a just society by simply
observing public opinion? If we are always fair to majorities, we
will often be unfair to minorities. If we do what seems to be fair
at the moment, we may create unfairness in the future. Many
philosophers have proposed concepts of justice that are much
more theoretical than everyday notions of fairness, and sometimes governments are influenced by philisophers. But in general, governments are guided by more practical considerations
such as rising crime rates or the lobbing of pressure groups.
Sometimes laws are simply an attempt to implement common sense. It is obvious to most people that dangerous driving
should be punished; that fathers should provide financial support for their children if they desert their families; that a person
should be compensated for losses when someone else breaks an
agreement with him or her. But in order to be enforced, common sense needs to be defined in law, and when definitions are
being written, it becomes clear that common sense is not such a
simple matter. Instead, it is a complex skill based upon long
observation of many different people in different situations.
Laws based upon common sense do not necessarily look much
like common sense when they have been put into words.
In practice, governments are neither institutions solely
interested in retaining power, nor clear-thinking bodies implementing justice and common sense. They combine many purposes and inherit many traditions. The laws that they make and
enforce reflect this confusion.