Diankamilanka2005

07.04.2020 07:58

Английский язык

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Main categories

One important distinction made in the countries is between private- or civil- law and public law. Civil law concerns disputes among citizens within a country, and public law concerns disputes between citizens and the state, or between one state and another. The main categories of English civil law are:

Contracts: binding agreements between people (or companies);

Torts: wrongs committed by one individual against another individual’s person, property or reputation;

Trusts: arrangements whereby a person administers property for another person’s benefit rather than his own Land Law;

Probate: arrangements for dealing with property after the owner’s death;

Family Law.

The main categories of public law are:

Crimes: wrongs which, even when committed against an individual are considered to harm the well-being of society in general;

Constitutional Law: regulation of how the law itself operates and of the relation between private citizens and government;

International Law: regulation of relations between governments and also between private citizens of one country and those of another.

In a codified system there are codes that correspond to these categories, for example, France’s Code Civil and Code Penal. Justinian’s Roman codes covered such areas of law as contracts, property, inheritance, torts, the family, unjust enrichment, the law of person, and legal remedies, but said little about criminal law. Consequently, most Continental criminal codes are entirely modern inventions.

Differences in procedure

Most countries make a rather clear distinction between civil and criminal procedures. For example, an English criminal court may force a defendant to pay a fine as punishment for his crime, and he may sometimes have to pay the legal costs of the prosecution. But the victim of the crime pursues his claim for compensation in a civil, not a criminal, action. In France, however, a victim of a crime may be awarded damages by a criminal court judge.

The standards of proof are higher in a criminal action than in a civil one since the loser risks not only financial penalties but also being sent to prison (or, in some countries, executed). In English law the prosecution must prove the guilt of a criminal “beyond reasonable doubt”; but the plaintiff in a civil action is required to prove his case’ on the balance of probabilities’. Thus, in a civil case a crime cannot be proven if the person or persons judging it doubt the guilt of the suspect and have a reason (not just a feeling or intuition) for this doubt. But in a civil case, the court will weight all the evidence and decide what is most probable.

Criminal and civil procedure are different. Although some systems, including English, allow a private citizen to bring a criminal prosecution against another citizen, criminal actions are nearly always started by he state. Civil actions, on the other hand, are usually started by individuals. Some courts, such as the English Magistrates Courts and Japanese Family Court, deal with both civil and criminal matters. Others, such as the English Crown Court, deal exclusively with one or the other.

In Anglo- American law, the party bringing a criminal action (that is, in most cases, the state) is called the prosecution, but the party bringing a civil action is the plaintiff. In both kinds of action the other party is known as the defendant.

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