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07.01.2023 06:40

Английский язык

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Чтоб легко было прочитать надо букавам grammatical meanings of notional words are rendered by their grammatical forms. for example, the meaning of the plural in english is regularly rendered by the grammatical suffix –(e)s: cats, books, clashes. grammatical meanings of individual grammatical forms are established as such in paradigmatic correlations: the plural correlates with the singular (cat – cats), the genitive case of the noun correlates with the common case (cat – cat’s), the definite article determination correlates with the indefinite article determination (a cat – the cat), etc. the generalized meaning rendered by paradigmatically correlated grammatical forms is called “categorial”. category is a logical notion denoting the reflection of the most general properties of phenomena. categorial meanings in grammar are expressed by grammatical paradigms. thus, the definition of grammatical category is as follows: grammatical categoryis a system of expressing a generalized categorial meaning by means of paradigmatic correlation of grammatical forms. in other words, it is a unity of a generalized grammatical meaning and the forms of its expression. on the basis of various combinations of common and differential features, several types of oppositions are distinguished. the prevalent type in english grammar is a binary privative opposition. the term “binary” means, that the opposition consists of two members, or forms; besides binary oppositions, there are oppositions, that may include more than two members (‘ternary’, ‘quaternary’, the term “privative” means that the members of the opposition are characterized by the presence/absence of a certain differential feature, which serves as the formal mark of one of its members; in the example above, cat – cats,the ending of the plural is its formal mark. the member of the opposition characterized by the presence of the differential mark is called “marked”, “strong”, or “positive” (commonly designated by the symbol +). besides privative oppositions, there are gradual and equipollent oppositions, which are minor types in morphology. gradual oppositions are formed by a series of members which are distinguished not by the presence or absence of a differential feature, but by the degree of it. a gradual morphological opposition in english can be identified only in the plane of content in the category of comparison, cf.: big – bigger - biggest. equipollent oppositions are formed by members, which are distinguished by a number of their own features. an equipollent morphological opposition in english can be identified in the plane of expression in the paradigms of suppletive forms, for example, in the correlation of the person and number forms of the verb be: am – are – is (was – were). grammatical oppositions can be reduced in some contextual circumstances, when one member of the opposition is used with the meaning of the other member, or, in other words, substitutes its counter-member. this phenomenon in the theory of oppositions is treated as “oppositional reduction” or “oppositional substitution”. two types of oppositional reduction can be distinguished in grammar: neutralization and transposition. neutralization takes place when the grammatical form, which is used, loses its own functional meaning and acquires the meaning of its counter-member; in other words, it becomes functionally equivalent with its oppositional counter-member. this type of oppositional reduction is stylistically indifferent (neutral); in most cases it happens when the weak member of the opposition is used in the meaning of the strong one, e.g.: the rose is my favourite flower (=roses are my favourite flowers) - the singular, the weak member of the number category opposition, is used instead of the plural, the strong member. transposition takes place in cases where one member of the opposition preserves to a certain extent its original functional meaning alongside the meaning of its counterpart; the two functional meanings are actually combined. this type of oppositional reduction is stylistically marked. because of the combination of meanings and the additional stylistic colouring created, transposition can be treated as a grammatical mechanism of figurativeness, or a grammatical metaphor. in most cases it happens when the strong member of the opposition is used with the meaning of the weak one. e.g.: the waters of the ocean, the sands of the desert– the plural, the strong member of the number category opposition, is used instead of the singular, the weak member. grammatical categories are subdivided into several types. “immanent”categories render the meaning innate (or, natural) for the words of a particular lexical class; for example, the category of number is innate for nouns since the referents denoted by nouns can potentially be counted. “reflective” categories serve as a sign of formal correlation or agreement between the words in an utterance: in english the verbal number formally reflects the number characteristics of the noun or of the pronoun with which the verb corresponds in the utterance; in other words, the verbs agree with the nouns or pronouns in the category of number, e.g.: the man goes - the men go. for verbs the category of number is not immanent; it is reflective. immanent categories can be either “transgressive” like the category of number, which transgresses the borders of the noun, or they can be “closed”, confined within the word-class; for example, the category of gender of nouns is not reflected by any other word-class in english, so it is a closed category. another distinction is based on the changeability of the categorial feature.